Table 3 Previously reported traditional uses, documented pharmacological/chemical activity, and toxicological data on the medicinal plants indicated for managing diseases of the respiratory system by herbalists in Kisumu East Sub County
| Plant name | Previously reported traditional use | Reported pharmacological/chemical activity | Type of study | Toxicological data |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acanthus polystachyus Delile |
Malaria [12], scorpion bite [13] | Antimalarial activity [14] | In vivo (Swiss albino mice) [14] | The methanol leaf extract was reported to be non-toxic in mice with a median lethal dose of > 2000 mg/kg [14] |
| Aloe kedongensis Reynolds | Malaria [15] | Antiplasmodial activity (aqueous leaf extract), leishmanicidal activity (aqueous and methanol extracts) [16] | In vitro (semi-automated microdilution assay, anti-leishmanial assay, anti-promastigote assay, anti-amastigote assay, MTT assay) [16] | The aqueous and methanol leaf extracts were reported to have low cytotoxicity against human embryonic lung fibroblast (HELF) cell lines (CC50 > 500 µg/mL) [16] |
| Allium sativum L. |
Malaria, wound disinfectant, intestinal infections [17], cold [18], aphrodisiac [19] |
Chemoprophylaxis against lead nitrate induced toxicity in mice [20], increase in the weight of seminal vesicles and epididymis of male animals and elevation of sperm count [21], antibacterial and antifungal activity (essential oil extracts) [22] |
In vivo (Swiss albino mice) [20], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [21], in vitro (disc diffusion and yeast glucose Chloramphenicol Agar method) [22] |
The LD50 in rabbits was reported to be 3034 mg/kg with a maximum tolerated dose of 2200 mg/kg [23]. Mortality in rabbits was recorded at 3200 and 4200 mg/kg. Anorexia and paralysis were observed in rabbits at high doses [23] The aqueous extract at a 300 mg/kg dose was reported to have mild toxicity symptoms in Wistar rats, but doses of 600 mg/kg and 1200 mg/kg were reported to elevate biochemical parameters. No toxicity was reported up to a dose of 2500 mg/kg and LD50 was reported to be > 5000 mg/kg [24] |
| Rhus natalensis Bernh. | Diarrhea, influenza [25] Respiratory disorders, Malaria [26] |
Antinociceptive activity (dichloromethane-methanol extract) [27], antibacterial activity (aqueous extract) [25] |
In vivo (Swiss albino mice) [27], in vitro (Standard plate count method) [25] | 3-(Z)-heptadec-14-enyl) benzene-1-ol isolated from the ethyl acetate root extract of R. natalensis was reported to be toxic in brine shrimp larvae (LC50 = 7.25 µg/mL), induced apoptosis, and caused cell cycle arrest [28] |
| Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. | Skin diseases [29], tuberculosis [30] |
Antibacterial activity (aqueous and methanol root extracts) [31], uterotonic activity in uterine strips of pregnant rats [32], diuretic activity (aqueous, methanol, and ethanol stem bark extracts) [33] |
In vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [31], ex vivo (Wistar rats; organ bath) [32], in vivo (Wistar rats) [33] |
The 80% ethanolic stem bark extract was reported to be cytotoxic against MDA-MB-231 (breast), PANC-1 (pancreas), and HT-29 (colon) cancer cell lines [34] Dibenzocyclo-Octadiene, a lignan constituent was reported to have antimitotic activity [35]. Steganacin (an isolated compound) was reported to inhibit the polymerization of tubulin and to slow the depolymerization of pre-formed microtubules in the sea urchin egg assay [36] |
| Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl | Respiratory infections [37], chest pains [38, 39] | Anti-bacterial activity (S. aureus, E. coli) [40] | In vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [40] |
No acute toxicity was observed in mice at oral therapeutic doses of up to 250 mg/kg [41]. The methanol root bark and the aqueous and methanol root extracts were reported to be cytotoxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC50 = 255.06 µg/mL, 260.34 µg/mL, and 186.71 µg/mL respectively) [42, 43] |
| Artemisia annua L. | Fever [18] |
Antimicrobial activity [44] antioxidant activity [45], cytotoxicity [46,47,48,49] |
In vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [44] In vitro (total phenolic content assay, total flavonoid content assay, Ferric reducing antioxidant power assay, Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assay) [45], in vitro (Resazurin assay, cytogenetic assay) [46,47,48,49] |
The dichloromethane and methanol extracts were reported to be cytotoxic against Trypanosoma brucei brucei (TC221 cells) [50] Artemisinin and quercetagetin 6,7,3′,4′-tetramethyl ether were reported to be cytotoxic against P-388, A-549, HT-29, MCF-7, and KB tumor cells [47]. The ethanol extract was reported to be cytotoxic against Molt-4 human leukemia cells and normal leukocytes [48]. The methanol extract was reported to be cytotoxic and genotoxic against meristem cells of Allium cepa [49] |
| Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze |
Ovarian cysts [17], malaria [17, 51] |
Antioxidant activity (leaf extracts) [52], cancer cell line cytotoxicity [53], antiplasmodial activity (dichloromethane leaf extract) [54] |
In vitro (2,2-diphenyl picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) assay) [52], In vitro (Resazurin assay) [53], In vitro (lactate dehydrogenase assay) [54] | The organic leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic against CCRF-CEM leukemia and decreased cell growth by 48% [53] |
| Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray |
Diabetes, malaria [55, 56], abscesses, snake bite [56] |
Antiplasmodial activity (ethanol leaf extracts) [57], antibacterial and antifungal activity (aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts) [58], antiplasmodial activity [59] |
In vivo (Swiss albino mice) [57], in vitro (Agar diffusion method) [58], In vitro (Semi-automated microdilution technique) [59] |
Sesquiterpenoids isolated form the 80% ethanol extract of aerial parts were reported to be cytotoxic against HL-60 leukemia cells [60] Acetyltagitinin E and Tagitinine-F (leaf isolated compounds) were reported to be selectively cytotoxic against Hep G2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells [61]. Tagitinin C (isolated from the leaves) was reported to be cytotoxic against colon cancer, other malignant cell lines [62, 63], and brine shrimp larvae [64] |
| Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. |
Pneumonia [65], tuberculosis [30], measles in children [39] |
Antibacterial activity (ethanol stem bark and fruit extracts) [66], antifungal activity [67], antibacterial, antifungal, antigiardial, and anticancer properties (Aqueous and methanol fruit extracts) [68] |
In vitro (Micro titre plate bioassay) [66], in vitro (Agar diffusion method) [67], in vitro (Modified disc diffusion method) [68] |
A 2000 mg/kg oral dose of the aqueous extract of the fruit was reported to cause hepatorenal toxic effects in Wistar rats [69] An 80% methanol extract of the fruit and roots was reported to be cytotoxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC50 = 240 µg/mL and 7.2 µg/mL respectively) [70] The aqueous bark extract was reported to be toxic to the African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) [71] The aqueous fruit extract was reported to be toxic to Artemia franciscana nauplii toxic with an LC50 value of 477 µg/mL [68] Compounds isolated from the hexane fraction of the stem bark were reported to be toxic against LLC/MK2 (monkey kidney epithelial cells) [72] The aqueous stem bark extract had a dose-dependent mortality on culet mosquito larvae [73] The ethanol stem bark extract was reported to be nontoxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC50 > 1000 µg/mL) [74] |
| Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Engl. |
Malaria, fever [75], swollen testicles, and abdominal pains [39], pneumonia [25] | Antifungal and antibacterial activity (Ethanolic root extract) [76] | in vitro (Agar diffusion technique) [76] |
The 95% ethanol extract was reported to be nontoxic in mice and no mortality was observed even at concentrations of up to 5000 mg/kg. However, drowsiness in doses between 1200 and 5000 mg/kg was reported [77] The compounds isolated from the methanol stem bark fraction (resveratrol derivatives) were reported to have low cytotoxicity on prostate cancer cell lines [78]. The ethanol root extract was reported to be nontoxic in brine shrimp larvae [74] |
| Warburgia salutaris (G.Bertol) Chiov |
Chest complaints, cough, fever, pneumonia [79], yellow fever [80], common cold, malaria [81], Aspergillosis [82] |
Fungicidal activity against Fusarium species (Acetone extract) [83] antimycobacterial activity against S. aureus, B. subtilis, S. epidermis, M. luteus, E. coli, and K. pneumoniae) [84] |
in vitro (Hole plate diffusion method, microdilution method) [83], in vitro (Bioautography assay) [84] | The acetone leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic against cancer cell lines [85] |
| Carica papaya L. |
Malaria, liver disease [12], tuberculosis [30], malaria, [86, 87], fever [18] |
Antibacterial activity (Methanol root extract) [88], antitumour activity and immunomodulatory effects (Aqueous leaf extract) [89] |
in vitro (Cup plate agar diffusion method) [88], in vitro (Cell viability assay, caspase assay, microarray analysis) [89] |
The aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts were reported to be cytotoxic on human oral squamous cell carcinoma SCC25 cell lines [90] The aqueous leaf extract was reported to disrupt cell division and to induce mitotic spindle disturbance in Allium cepa [91] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic against LLC-MK2 cell lines [92] The aqueous leaf extract was reported to be non-toxic in Sprague Dawley rats at a 2000 mg/kg dose [93] No morphological alterations were reported in Sprague Dawley rats treated with a 28-day repeated oral dose of 2000 mg/kg [94] Aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts were reported to be nontoxic at doses of up to 5000 mg/kg [95] The methanol leaf, root, and stem bark extracts were reported to be nontoxic against MRC-5 cell lines (CC50 > 32 µg/mL) [96] |
| Terminalia brownii Fresen |
Cough, bronchitis [97, 98], allergy, diabetes, malaria [25, 98], clotting agent, coughs and joint stiffness [99] |
Anti-fertility effect (Ethyl acetate extracts) [100], antibacterial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, and B. subtilis (Aqueous bark extract) [25] |
in vivo (Swiss mice) [100], in vitro (Standard plate count method) [25] | Doses of between 500 and 1000 mg/kg of the methanol root bark extracts were reported to cause dullness and decreased activity of Swiss albino rats [101] |
| Ipomoea kituiensis Var | Constipation, digestive disorders [99] | Acaricidal activity (Methanol:DCM (1:1 v/v) leaf extract) [102] | in vivo (Modified larval packet test) [102] | The aqueous extract was reported to be moderately toxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC50 = 136.96 µg/mL) [102] |
| Euclea divinorum Hiern. |
Stomachache [103], bleeding [104], diarrhea, typhoid , stroke [105], toothache [99] | Contractile activity of isolated rabbit uterine strips (aqueous and ethanol root bark extracts) [106] | ex vivo (Organ bath; Swiss white rabbits) [106] |
The aqueous and organic root extracts were reported to cause retarded growth and altered biochemical parameters in mice [107] The methanol root extract was reported to be cytotoxic against MEC-5 fibroblast cells (IC50 = 27.5 ± 3.6 µg/mL) [108] |
| Croton megalocarpus Del. | Influenza, pneumonia, wounds, family planning, typhoid, over bleeding during menstruation cycle and birth [105] |
Antibacterial and antifungal activities (petroleum ether and aqueous leaf extracts) [109], antifungal activity (The methanol leaf extract) [110] |
in vitro (Agar well and disc diffusion assays) [109], in vitro (Agar well diffusion technique) [110] | The LC50 was reported to be < 250 µg/mL in the brine shrimp lethality assay [111] |
| Croton dichogamous Pax |
Chest congestion (wheezing) [112] Polio like-symptoms, gonorrhea, chest pains [39] Threatened abortion, infertility [113] Pesticidal activity [114] | No reports | No reports | No reports |
| Harungana madagascariensis Lam. Ex Poir | Gastrointestinal disorders [115] |
Antibacterial activity against B. subtilis, S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa (Aqueous leaf extract) [115], antibacterial activity against S. typhi, S. paratyphi, S. paratyphi B and S. typhimurium (Aqueous extracts) [116], antibacterial activity (Astilbin or 3-O-α-l-rhamnoside-5,73,4′-tetrahydroxydihydroflavonol) [117] |
in vitro (Modified agar well diffusion method) [115] In vitro (Broth dilution technique) [116], in vitro (Solid dilution method, bioautography) [117] |
The aqueous leaf extract was reported to induce liver damage at high doses of > 100 mg/kg and > 200 mg/kg in female and male rats respectively [118]. A 400 mg/kg dose of the iso saline leaf extract administered intraperitoneally in Sprague-Dawley rats significantly elevated serum levels of alanine and aspartate aminotransferase, and significantly lowered the blood glucose levels [119]. |
| Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel | Epilepsy, diarrhea, nasopharyngeal infection, intestinal spams [120] |
Antibacterial activity against S. pyogenes, K. pneumoniae (95% ethanolic extract) [121] Antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger (1:1 dichloromethane/methanol (1:1) extract) [122] |
in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [121], in vitro (Disc diffusion method) [122] | Reported to contain cytotoxic substances that affect mitotic active tissue [123]. There was no indication of mutagenesis when dichloromethane and 70% ethanol extracts were tested on S. typhimurium (Ames test) (TA98) [124] |
| Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) R.Br.ex Vatke |
Malaria [125] Febrile convulsions, Abdominal colic [126] Respiratory infections [37] Pneumonia [25] |
Antibacterial and antifungal activity (Organic root extract) [127], antibacterial activity (Aqueous and methanol leaf extract) [128], antiplasmodial activity (Methanol leaf extract) [129] |
in vitro (Agar disc diffusion method) [127], in vitro (agar diffusion method) [128], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [129] |
The dichloromethane root bark extract was reported to be nontoxic on L6 cells (IC50 > 90 µg/mL) [130]. The methanol root extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp [131] |
| Plectranthus barbatus Andr. |
Abdominal pain, diarrhea [132], tuberculosis [30], malaria [133], wounds, swelling, joint pain, stomach problems, malaria [134], ashtma [135] |
Larvicidal properties (Eugenol, α-pinene and β-caryophyllene l) [136], anticonvulsant activity (Hydroalcoholic leaf extract) [137], inhibition of HIV-1 enzymes, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities (Ethanol leaf extract) [138] |
in vivo (Third instar mosquito larvae) [136], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [137], in vitro (MTT assay, flow cytometric analysis, HIV-1 protease fluorogenic assay, HIV-1 transcriptase colorimetric assay, DPPH free radical scavenging assay) [138] |
The ethanol extract was reported to have low cytotoxicity against PBMCs and TZM-bl cell lines (IC50 values = 83.7 and 50.4 µg/mL respectively) [138] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be toxic to Artemia salina (LC50 = 186.33 µg/mL) [139] The chloroform aerial part extract was reported to reduce the viability of undifferentiated/anaplastic thyroid cancer cell lines [140] |
| Vitex doniana Sweet |
Hypertension, diabetes, ulcers [141], malaria, measles [142], gastroenteritis, diarrhea [143], diuretic, diabetes [144] |
Antimicrobial activity (Methanol stem bark extract) [145, 146], antioxidant activity (Aqueous leaf extract) [147], wound healing properties (Hydroalcoholic stem bark extract) [148] |
in vitro (Paper disc assay method, Agar well diffusion method) [145, 146], in vitro (DPPH assay) and in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [147], in vivo (ICR mice) [148] | The organic leaf and bark extracts were reported to be non-toxic to mammalian L6 cell lines (IC50 > 90 µg/mL) [149] |
| Acacia robusta Burch. | Malaria [150], fibroids [113] | Antifungal activity (Methanol root bark extract) [151] | in vitro (Broth dilution) [151] | The methanol stem bark extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp (LC50 = 108.5 µg/mL) [70] |
| Albizia zygia (DC.) J.J.Macbr. |
Antimalarial activity [152, 153], anticancer [154], cough, fever, aphrodisiac, counter female sterility [155], bronchial disease, fever [156] |
Antimicrobial activity (Methanol and hexane extracts) [155], anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity (Ethanol stem bark extract) [157] |
in vitro (Agar diffusion) [155], in vivo (chicks), and in vitro (DPPH) [157] |
The ethanol stem bark extract was reported to be nontoxic against MRC-5 cells (> 64 µg/mL) [96] The methanol extract was reported to be more toxic to brine shrimp than the non-polar n-hexane extract (LC50 1.70 µg/mL compared to 174.19 µg/mL) [155] |
| Rhynchosia elegans var. elegans | Malaria, common cold, fever [12] | No reports | No reports | No reports |
| Tamarindus indica L. |
Malaria [158, 159], constipation, jaundice [97], aphrodisiac [19], general wellbeing [18], sexually transmitted infections [99] |
Antibacterial activity against P. mirabilis (Acetone stem bark extract) [160], antibacterial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, and P.aeurigenosa (Aqueous pulp extract) [161] |
in vitro (Paper disc diffusion method) [160], in vitro (disc diffusion method) [161] |
The LD50 values of various crude extracts and 25–50% fractions were reported to be in the range of between 832 and 5019 µg/mL [162] The acute oral toxicity studies of the pulp extract at 3000 mg/kg and 5000 mg/kg body weight resulted in no mortality in Wistar albino rats [163] |
| Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy ex Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc. | Epilepsy, infertility in women, renal disease, cancer [132] |
Antibacterial activity (Methanol extracts) [164], antifungal activity, and cytotoxicity (Ethyl acetate extracts) [165] |
in vitro (disk-diffusion assay) [164], in vitro (Broth microdilution method) and in vivo (brine shrimp cytotoxicity) [165] | The dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and aqueous extracts were reported to be toxic to brine shrimp (LC50 = 203.66 µg/mL, 7.58 µg/mL, and 17.57 µg/mL respectively) [165] |
| Azadirachta indica (L) Burm. |
Malaria [159, 166], scabies, control blood sugar levels [167], tuberculosis [30] |
Antibacterial activity against S. typhi and antifungal activity against C. albicans (n-hexane extract) [168], antioxidant and antibacterial properties (50% ethanol leaf extract) [169] |
in vitro (Ditch well diffusion method) [168], in vitro (Agar well diffusion method [169] |
The aqueous and methanol leaf extracts were reported to be non-toxic against MRC-5 cells (CC50 > 32 µg/mL) [96] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC50 = 233.061 µg/mL) [42] The aqueous and methanol leaf extracts were reported to be toxic to brine shrimp larvae (LC50 = 101.26 and 61.43 µg/mL respectively) [43]. |
| Khaya senegalensis Desr. A. Juss |
Diabetes, hypertension [170], hepatic inflammations, sinusitis [97]. malaria [87] |
Antibacterial activity against S. enterica subsp. Enterica serovar typhi (50% ethanolic leaf extract) [171], in vivo hypoglycemic activity (Ethyl acetate extract) [172], hepatoprotective effects [173], antioxidant activity (Ethanolic extract) [174] |
in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [171], in vivo (rats) [172], in vivo (rats) [173], in vitro (DPPH radical scavenging assay, deoxyribose assay, Nitric oxide radical scavenging assay) [174] |
Orally administered ethanol stem bark extract in rats at a dose of 2 mg/kg for 18 days was reported to induce the synthesis of liver enzymes [175]. The subchronic administration of the aqueous stem bark extract to rats was reported to affect the cellular integrity of vital organs of the body [176]. Sub-chronic administration of the aqueous stem bark extract in albino rats was reported to cause the elevation of liver enzymes, and to Increase plasma total protein, blood urea, and creatinine [177]. |
| Mollugo nudicaulis Lam. | Whooping cough and jaundice [178] |
Antioxidant and antibacterial activity(Methanol leaf extract) [179], antidiabetic properties (Ethanolic whole-plant extract) [180] |
in vitro (Total phenolic content assay, total flavonoid content assay, ABTS scavenging activity assay, DPPH radical scavenging assay, agar disc diffusion assay) [179] in vivo (Wistar rats) [180] | No reports |
| Moringa oleifera Lam. |
Malnutrition [75], tuberculosis [30], loss of memory, prostate cancer [105], flu, asthma, hypertension, malaria [181] |
Antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa and S. aureus (Fresh leaf juice and aqueous seed extracts) [182], chemoprophylaxis against Artesunate-amodiaquine induced liver damage (aqueous-methanol leaf extracts) [183] |
in vitro (Paper disc diffusion method) [182], in vivo (Wistar rats) [183] |
The aqueous leaf extract was reported to increase the cytotoxic effect of chemotherapy on pancreatic cancer cells [184] The organic leaf extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp larvae [185] The aqueous extract was reported to be strongly cytotoxic on Hela cells [186] |
| Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh |
Tuberculosis [30], malaria, liver disorders [75], respiratory tract congestion, chronic bronchitis, coughing, tuberculosis [187] |
Antibacterial activity (Essential oil from the leaves) [188], antibacterial activity against H. pylori (N-hexane and chloroform leaf extract) [189], antimycobacterial activity against M. tuberculosis and M. bovis strains (Methanol extracts) [190] |
in vitro (Aromatogram, micro atmosphere test, broth dilution method [188], in vitro (Agar disc diffusion) [189], in vitro (Resazurin microtiter assay) [190] |
The aqueous-acetone extract was reported to be cytotoxic on MCF-7 and HCT-116 cell lines [191] The essential oils from fresh leaves were reported to inhibit egg hatchability and to suppress the second stage juvenile viability of root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita [192] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic against human breast cancer cell lines (MCF 7 and MDA-MB-231) cell lines [193] The methanol leaf extract was reported to be cytotoxic on P19 embryonal carcinoma cells [194] |
| Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. |
Asthma, bronchitis, sore throat [195], coughing, diabetes, dysentery, ringworms, inflammation [196], diarrhea, dysentery, wounds, constipation [167] |
Anti-inflammatory activity in mice (Ethanol bark extract) [197], hypoglycemic activity (Aqueous bark extract) [198] |
in vivo (mice) [197] in vivo (rats) [198] |
The methanol extract was reported to have an LD50 value of > 5000 mg/kg in mice [199] The ethanol extract was reported to be nontoxic to rats at doses of up to 5000 mg/kg [200] The ethanol bark extract was reported to be nontoxic in mice at doses of up to 10.125 g/kg [197] |
| Ximenia americana L. | Throat infection, amenorrhea, wound healing, pain [201] |
Antimicrobial activity against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and P. vulgaris (bark, leaf, and root extracts) [202], antioxidant activity (Methanol stem bark extract) [203] |
in vitro (cup-plate agar diffusion method) [202], in vitro (DPPH radical scavenging assay) [203] | The methanol stem bark extract was reported to be nontoxic against MRC-5 cell lines (CC50 = 64 µg/mL) [96] |
| Clematis hirsuta Guill. & Perr | Colds, cleanser [105], chest problems [134] | Antifungal activity against C. albicans [204] | in vitro (Liquid dilution method) [204] | The oral administration of an 80% methanol leaf extract did not result in any physical signs e.g. depression, decrease in feeding activity, and hair erection in Swiss albino mice [205] |
| Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. |
Hypertension [170] Treat dysentery, urinary tract infections [206] |
Antimicrobial activity against C. coli, C. jejuni, S. aureus (Aqueous extract) [206], antiplasmodial activity (80% methanol root bark extract) [207], viricidal activity against African Swine Fever Virus (Ethanol root extract) [208] |
in vitro (disc diffusion method) [206], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [207], in vitro (Plaque titration technique) [208] | The ethanol root extract was reported to be non-toxic on human carcinoma cell lines [209] |
| Keetia gueinzii (Sond.) Bridson | Malaria [166] | Antimycobacterial activity against pathogenic and non-pathogenic Mycobacterium species [210] | in vitro (Bioautography and the modified two-fold serial dilution microplate method; anti mycobacterial activity) [210], in vitro cytotoxicity; MTT assay [210] | The acetone leaf extract was reported to have an LC50 of 0.142 in vero cell lines and 0.063 in SI C3 A cell lines [210] |
| Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. |
Arthritis, sexually transmitted infections [26], stomach ache, coughs, malaria [99] Malaria [133] |
Antifungal activity [211], antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, and molluscicidal activity [212] |
in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [211], in vivo (Molluscs) [212] | The methanol root bark extract was reported to be cytotoxic in brine shrimp (LC50 = 198.498 µg/mL) [42] |
| Teclea nobilis Del. |
Antipyretic [213], malaria, headache, joint pains, common cold, pneumonia, intestinal worms, chest pain [134], arthritis [39] |
Antipyretic and analgesic activity and found to be weakly active against carrageenan edema (Ethanol leaf extract) [214], anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activities (Acetonitrile leaf extract, hexane leaf extract, and Lupeol) [215], anti-caseinolytic activity against B. arietans venom (Methanol root extract) [216] |
in vivo (Wistar-Nossan rats) [214], in vivo (Wistar rats) [215], in vitro (Spectrophotometry) [216] | The dichloromethane and ethanol extracts of aerial parts were reported to be cytotoxic to brine shrimp (LC50 = 75.5 µg/mL and 156.6 µg/mL respectively) [217] |
| Toddalia asiatica L. |
Sore throat, Malaria [218], fever, stomach ache [219], abdominal pains, gynecologic disorders including infertility, common colds, cancer, renal disorders [132], tuberculosis, [30], common cold, fever, malaria, pneumonia, chest pain [134], colds, respiratory diseases e.g. cold, asthma, chest pain, toothache [105], malaria and bark for respiratory disorders [39] |
Larvicidal activity (Hexane, acetone, and methanol leaf extracts) [220], antifungal activity against Candida albicans (Ethyl acetate leaf extracts) [221], antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects (1:1 dichloromethane-methanol root extract) [222] |
in vivo (Aedes egyptii and Culex quinquefasciatus) [220], in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [221], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [222] |
Compound 13 isolated from the root was reported to be cytotoxic against the MCF-7 cell line (IC50 = 8.7 µg/mL) but was inactive on Vero cells. Alkaloid 11 was reported to be cytotoxic against KB, NCI-H187, MCF-7, and vero cell lines (IC50 values ranging from 0.8 to 11.6 µg/mL) [223] Essential oils from the leaves were reported to be cytotoxic against breast (MCF-7) and colorectal (HT-29) cancer cell lines [224] (IC50 values = 7.80 µg/mL and 100.0 µg/mL respectively). Benzo[c]phenanthridine and secobenzo[c]phenantridine alkaloids isolated from the ethanol root extract was reported to be cytotoxic on tumor cell lines [225] The acute toxicity and cytotoxicity of the aqueous, ethyl acetate, and methanol leaf extract and root extracts were reported to be > 1000 mg/kg (LD50) and > 100 µg/mL (CC50) respectively [219] The alkaloid (1,3)benzodioxolo(5,6-c)phenanthridine, 12,13-dihydro-2,3-dimethoxy-12-methyl-(dihydronitidine) was reported to be highly cytotoxic to human lung adenocarcinoma (A549) cells [226] |
| Zanthoxylum chalybeum (Eng) Engl. |
Tuberculosis [30], malaria [166], pneumonia, [134], cough, cervical cancer [227] |
Antibacterial activity against S. aureus (Methanol extracts) [128], antihyperglycemic activity (Aqueous stem bark extract) [228], antimicrobial activity against B. cereus and MRSA (Aqueous root bark extract) [229], antiplasmodial activity (Aqueous root bark extract) [230] |
in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [128], in vivo (Wistar rats) [228], in vitro (Agar well diffusion method) [229], in vivo (Swiss albino mice) [230] |
The methanol root bark extract was reported to be toxic to brine shrimp (LC50 = 68.9 µg/mL) [70] The ethanol root extract was reported to be toxic in brine shrimp larvae (38.51 µg/mL) [74] The organic root extract of Zanthoxylum chalybeum (Eng) Engl. (Rutaceae) was reported to be cytotoxic in brine shrimp (LC50 = 11 µg/mL) [231] A 2000 mg/kg dose of the aqueous and organic extracts were reported to be nontoxic in mice [230] The organic extract was reported to be toxic in brine shrimp larvae (LC50 = 42.73 µg/mL) [230] |
| Zanthoxylum gilletii (De Wild.) P.G.Waterman | Malaria [51] | Antiplasmodial activity against P. falciparum (50% MeOH in CH2Cl2 extract) [232] | in vitro (non-radioactive Malaria SYBR Green I assay) [232] |
Lupeol (an isolated compound) was reported to be cytotoxic against a panel of drug-sensitive and MDR tumor cells via multiple mechanisms with marginal or no effect on normal cells at similar doses [233]. The ethanol stem bark extract was reported to be cytotoxic on leukemia CCRF-CEM cells (IC50=9.04 µg/mL) [234]. |
| Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl |
Threatened abortion/contraception [113] Pain [128] Malaria, liver disease and otitis [235] Malaria [159] |
Antibacterial activity (Buffered methanol (80% methanol and 20% PBS) and acetone) [236], hypoglycemic activity(Aqueous leaf extracts) [237] |
in vitro (Agar well disc diffusion assay) [236], in vivo (Wistar rats) [237] | The methanol (70%) extract of aerial parts was reported to be more cytotoxic on MCF-7 (breast cancer) cell lines than doxorubicin (IC50 = 0.77 µg/mL and 3.45 µg/mL respectively) [238] |
| Rhoicissus revoilii Planch | Pneumonia, tonsillitis [239] | Antifungal activity against C. albicans (Ethanol extract) [239] | in vitro (Agar well disc diffusion assay) [239] | No reports |