Table 5 Acute toxicity profiles of some MPs employed in the treatment of epilepsy and related symptoms
No. | Scientific name | PU | Extract | Animal models | Acute toxicity studies | Refs. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Doses (mg/kg) | LD50 (mg/kg) | Treatment outcomes | ||||||
1 | Ajuga integrifolia | R | HME | Swiss albino male mice (20–30 g) | 2000 | > 2000 | Neither mortality of mice nor any signs of toxicity (behavioral, neurological, autonomic, or physical changes) was observed at 2000 mg/kg of body weight | [189] |
2 | Allium sativum | Bu | AQ | Wistar rats (⁓115–126 g) | 100, 1000, 2500 & 5000 | > 5000 | No death was recorded at all doses. The rats treated with 5000 mg/kg of body weight experienced cardiac problem and disorientation | [190] |
3 | Artemisia abyssinica | Ar | ET | Swiss albino mice (25–30 g) | 500, 1000 & 3000 | > 3000 | The mice did not show visible toxicity, although at 3000 mg/kg a decreased in locomotor activity was observed | [191] |
4 | Artemisia afra | L | AQ | Female adult Swiss albino mice (25–30 g) | 200, 700, 1200, 2200, 3200, 4200 &5000 | > 5000 | Mild toxicities like anxiety and piloerection were observed at higher doses (≥ 3200 mg/kg) that disappear in the wash out periods. No mortality in mice was recorded at all doses | [175] |
L | ET, DCM & HX | Swiss albino mice (20–22 g) | 1000, 2000 and 2500 | > 2500 | Loss of appetite, hypoactivity, lethargic, dizziness that disappeared in the washout period was noticed in mouse treated with DCM extract at 2500 mg/kg | [192] | ||
5 | Asparagus africanus | R | HET & BU | Swiss albino mice (20–25 g) | 1000, 3000 & 5000 | > 5000 | There was no dose-dependent behavioral change, weight change and mortality in mice treated single dose BUT fraction orally | [182] |
6 | Azadirachta indica | L | AQ | Female BALB/c mice (average mass of 30 g) | 1250, 2500 & 5000 | > 5000 | The mice treated with the extract were devoid of weight/hair loss, allergy, or other symptoms of discomfort | [176] |
7 | Balanites aegyptiaca | SB | AQ | Fishes | 17.5, 20, 22.5 & 25a | ⁓18.99–20.72a | B. nurse, L. intermedius and L. bynni fish species treated with the extract suffered from the debilitating toxic effect | [193] |
8 | Biophytum umbraculum | R | AQ, BU & CH | Female Swiss Albion mice (22–30 g) | 2000 | > 2000 | There was no behavioral change, weight change and mortality in mice treated single dose of all fractions | [183] |
9 | Brucea antidysenterica | L | AQ, ME & CH | Swiss albino mice (27–36 g) | 500, 1000 & 2000 | – | The extracts lack visible signs of acute toxicity and mice fatality till the dose of 1000 mg/kg. But, at the dose of 2000 mg/kg it caused mortality in all mice with in 24 h | [194] |
10 | Buddleja polystachya | L | HME | Female Sprague–Dawley rats (150–200 g) | 2000 | – | There was no visible sign of skin reaction, inflammation, erythema, irritation or redness, and any adverse reaction in rats | [177] |
11 | Calpurnia aurea | L | AQ & HME | Female Swiss albino mice | 5000 | > 5000 | The mice were devoid of gross behavioral or physical changes and signs of overt toxicity such as lacrimation, urination, muscle weakness and convulsions | [186] |
12 | Capparis tomentosa | R | HME | Male Swiss Albino mice (25–38 g) | 2000, 3000 & 5000 | > 2000 | The mice showed signs of slight rigidity and sleepy activity at higher doses of extract (3000 and 5000 mg/kg). No mortality was recorded at all doses | [184] |
13 | Carissa edulis | L | AQ | Wistar albino rats of either sex | 2000 | > 2000 | The rats showed no gross behavioral or physical changes and signs of overt toxicity | [195] |
RB | ET | Wistar albino rats (124–220 g) & Swiss mice (16–35 g) | 10, 100 & 1000 | ⁓3808 | None of the mice and rats orally treated with the extract manifested signs of toxicity except death at the dose of 5000 mg/kg (in both species) | [187] | ||
14 | Caylusea abyssinica | L | HME | Male Swiss albino mice (20–30 g) | 2000 | > 2000 | The mice didn’t experience any behavioral, neurological, autonomic or physical changes | [196] |
15 | Clerodendrum myricoides | R | AQ | Swiss albino mice of either sex (25–30 g) | 1134 | – | Behavioral changes such as horripilation, difficulty in breathing, grooming, and asthenia followed by death was noticed in mice treated with 1134 mg/kg | [197] |
16 | Croton macrostachyus | R | HME | Female Swiss Albino mice (25–28 g) | 2000 & 5000 | > 5000 | The mice showed no visible signs of lacrimation, loss of appetite, tremors, hair erection, salivation, diarrhea and convulsion | [198] |
SB | AQ & HME | Female Swiss albino mice | 5000 | > 5000 | The mice were devoid of gross behavioral or physical changes and signs of overt toxicity such as lacrimation, urination, muscle weakness and convulsions | [186] | ||
SB | HME, AQ & ETAc | Female Swiss albino mice | 2000 | > 2000 | None of the mice treated with crude extract or solvent fractions showed problems in breathing, alertness, motor activity, restlessness, diarrhea and convulsions | [199] | ||
17 | Cucumis ficifolius | R | HME & CH | Swiss albino mice (25–30 g) | 125, 250, 500 & 2000 | > 2000 | There were no mortality and signs of overt toxicities at a dose of 2000 mg/kg of body weight | [200] |
18 | Echinops kebericho | Tu | EO | Swiss albino mice (18–26 g) | 300 & 2000 | > 2000 | Though the mice showed piloerection, muscle spasm and apathy immediately after administration, there were no significant treatment-related morbidities | [201] |
Tu | AQ | Wistar albino rats (250–350 g) | 300, 2000 & 5000 | > 5000 | The rats experienced piloerection, muscle twinge, and lethargy after the treatment with the extract (5000 mg/kg) which disappeared after 5 h. But, there were no treatment related morbidity and mortality at 5000 mg/kg | [202] | ||
19 | Embelia schimperi | Fr | HET | Female Wistar rats (180–210 g) | 400, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 & 5000 | > 5000 | The extract didn’t elicit prominent signs of toxicity and any mortality in rats in the study period | [203] |
20 | Eucalyptus Globulus | L | EO | Swiss albino mice of either sex (23–30 g) | 2, 2.5, 3 & 3.5b | 2.5b | The mice treated with the essential oil showed restlessness, debilitation, reduced food and water intake and piloerection which disappeared in the washout period after treatment with ≥ 2.5 mL/kg | [178] |
21 | Fagaropsis angolensis | SB | HME, AQ, BU & CH | Adult male Swiss albino mice (25–30 g) | 2000 | ≥ 2000 | Neither mortality nor any signs of toxicity were observed in mice treated with both extracts at 2000 mg/kg body weight | [204] |
22 | Foeniculum vulgare | Fr | ET | Swiss labial mice (25–28 g) | 500, 1000 & 3000 | ≥ 3000 | The extract didn’t trigger mortality of mice and overt toxicity except reduced locotmotor activity and piloerection at 3000 mg/kg of body weight | [205] |
23 | Gloriosa superba | L | AQ | White male Wistar rats (200–250 g) | ⁓121, 364, 1091 & 3274 | > 1500 | The rats experienced treated with colchicine of standardized Gloriosa superba extract showed no visible sign of overt toxicity | [206] |
L | HME | Non-pregnant Wistar rats (120–140 g) | 200 & 5000 | > 5000 | There were no visible overt signs of toxicity at 5000 mg/kg. No morbidity or mortality was observed in the rats treated groups at both doses | [179] | ||
24 | Justicia schimperiana | L | HME | Swiss albino mice (18–30 g) | 2000 | > 2000 | The extract didn’t trigger signs of overt toxicity. Moreover, no mortality of mice was recorded in the study period | [207] |
L | HME | Female adult Wistar rats (180–200 g) | 2000 | > 2000 | Rats showed no formation of edema or erythema. No signs of toxicity as well as no mortality were noted during the study period | [208] | ||
25 | Maytenus heterophylla | L | HET | Male CD-6 mice (35–40 g) | 1200 | > 1200 | The mice treated with the extract were devoid of physical and behavioral changes at 1200 mg/kg | [180] |
26 | Maytenus senegalensis | RB | ET | Swiss albino mice (18–22 g) | 200, 300, 400, 800 & 1600 | > 1600 | The mice treated with the extract were devoid of physical and behavioral changes at 1600 mg/kg | [209] |
SB | HET | Theiller’s albino mice of either sex | 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 & 5000 | > 5000 | The mice treated with the extract were devoid of physical and behavioral changes at 5000 mg/kg | [210] | ||
L & S | HET | Male CD-6 mice (35–40 g) | 1200 | – | The mice treated with leaf extract exhibited some signs of overt toxicity. In addition, the stem extract caused pronounced toxicity at 1200 mg/kg | [180] | ||
27 | Myrica salicifolia | R | HME | Non-pregnant female mice | 2000 | > 2000 | There are no visible signs of overt toxicity and mortality in mice treated with the extract at 2000 mg/kg | [211] |
28 | Nicotiana tabacum | L | Bio-oil | Female Wistar rats (130–140 g) | 5000 | > 5000 | The rats exhibited no significant change in the body weight and behavior. In addition, there was no mortality of rats in the study period | [181] |
29 | Ocimum lamiifolium | L | ME | Swiss albino mice (27–36 g) | 500, 1000 & 2000 | ≥ 2000 | The crude extract didn’t trigger gross visible signs of acute toxicity such as urination, hair erection, lacrimation, and reduction in feeding activity | [194] |
30 | Olea europaea | L | ET | Wistar rats of either sex (150–200 g) | 2000 | ≥ 2000 | Oral administration of the extract didn’t cause any mortality or sign of toxicity at 2000 mg/kg of body weight during the study period | [212] |
31 | Opuntia ficus-indica | S | HET | White Sprague Dawley rats either sex | 500, 1000 & 2000 | – | The rats exhibited no genotoxicity at all treatments regimens even at the maximum dose of 2000 mg/kg | [213] |
Se | HX (fixed oil) | Mus musculus mice (20–30 g) | 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 & 70b | 43b | The mice suffered from immediate agitation and behavioral perturbations with temporary writhing, followed by a quiet attitude period and sedation | [214] | ||
32 | Pentas schimperiana | L | AQ & HME | Swiss Albino mice of either sex (20–33 g) | 1000, 2000 & 5000 | > 4000 | The mice experienced no visible change in behavior such as restlessness, motor activity, breathing and diarrhea. Moreover, there was no mortality recorded at 5000 mg/kg | [215] |
33 | Podocarpus falcactus | Ap | AQ | Female Sprague Dawley rats (260–300 g) | 2000 | > 2000 | The rats showed neither mortality nor gross behavioral changes and mortality at 2000 mg/kg of body weight | [216] |
34 | Ruta chalepensis | Ar | ET | Male Swiss albino mice (25–30 g) | 1600, 3000 & 5000 | > 5000 | The extract didn’t trigger mortality nor macroscopic tissue injury or weight loss at 5000 mg/kg per body weight | [164] |
35 | Rhus vulgaris | SB | AQ, | Female Swiss albino mice (18–26 g) | 50, 300 & 2000 | > 2000 | The mice were devoid of changes in general appearance and behavioral patterns. In addition, there was no mortality or gross pathology in any organ at necropsy | [217] |
36 | Securidaca longepedunculata | L, S & R | AQ & ME/CH (1:1) | Swiss female mice (20–22 g) | 50, 300 & 2000 | > 2000 | The AQ total extracts of leaves and stembark did not show any change in behavior following administration of the crude extracts at 2000 mg/kg of body weight | [218] |
37 | Sida rhombifolia | Ar | ET | Adult male Wistar albino rats (180–220 g) | 2000 | > 2000 | There were no visible overt signs of toxicity and mortality in rats treated with 2000 mg/kg of the extract | [219] |
Ar | HME | Albino Wistar rats (102–134 g) | 4000, 8000, 12000 & 1600 | > 8000 | The rats exhibited slight changes in general behavior such as sow response to external stimuli, stretching and sluggishness | [220] | ||
R | AQ | Sprague Dawley rats of either sex (130–190 g) | 5000 | > 5000 | The rats experienced neither overt toxicity signs nor mortality at a single dose of 5000 mg/kg | [221] | ||
38 | Syzygium guineense | L | HME | Wistar rats of either sex (120–140 g) | 2000 & 5000 | > 5000 | In the acute toxicity study, rats treated with 2000 mg/kg and 5000 mg/kg showed no toxicological signs observed on behavior, gross pathology, and body weight of rats | [179] |
39 | Teclea nobilis | Wh | HME & AQ | Male Swiss mice (⁓20 g) | 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 & 5000 | > 5000 | The extract was devoid of any overt toxicities at 5000 mg/kg of body weight. Moreover, there was no mortality recorded in the study period | [222] |
40 | Vernonia amygdalina | L | AQ & HME | Female Swiss albino mice | 5000 | > 5000 | The mice exhibited no signs of overt toxicity such as lacrimation, urination, muscle weakness, sedation and convulsions at 5000 mg/kg | [186] |
L | AQ & ET | Albino Wistar rats (200–250 g) | 2000 | > 2000 | The extracts triggered no significant effect on the biochemical and hematological parameters of treated rats (no lesions were also observed in the liver and kidneys histologically) | [223] | ||
41 | Withania somnifera | R | ME | Wistar rats | 5000, 1000 & 2000 | > 2000 | The rats didn’t experience any organ atrophy, hypertrophy, and degenerative or infiltrative lesions even at 2000 mg/kg | [185] |
42 | Zingiber officinale | R | HX (fixed oil), EO | Swiss albino mice (23–26 g) and Wistar rats (150–170 g) | 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08 and 0.1b mL/kg for fixed oil; 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 2.0, 4, 6, 8 and 10b for EO | – | Observed cardinal signs of toxicity for both oils were decreased motor activity, convulsion and paralysis. In addition, mortality of experimental animals was noticed in both fixed-oil (0.2 mL/kg) and EO treated group | [224] |