Table 2 A brief review of reports on the effect of garlic on diabetes, diabetic retinopathy, BDNF, and VEGF

Garlic effect on diabetes

 Aged garlic extract

STZ-induced diabetic rat

BMI (−), GLU (−), insulin (+), CL (−), TG (−), UP (−)

[32]

 Garlic + met

T2D patients

Garlic: FBS (−), insulin (+), TC (−), risk of cardiovascular disease (−)

Garlic + Met: more glycemic control and antihyperlipidemic activity

[15]

 Garlic oil

STZ-induced diabetic rat

UP (−), GTT (+), insulin (+)

[36]

 Chewing vs swallowed garlic

T2D patient (uncontrolled dyslipidemia

CL (−), TG (−), SBP (−), DBP (−), even with increasing fat intake;

*Swallowed garlic had no significant effect on serum lipids

[22]

 Raw crushed garlic

Metabolic syndrome patient

FBS and other metabolic syndrome elements (−)

[24]

 Garlic extract

STZ-induced diabetic rat

GLU (−), insulin (+)

 Raw garlic extract

STZ-induced diabetic rat

GLU (−), CL (−), TG (−), UP (−)

[38]

 VO (3mpa)2 complex

3T3-L1 preadipocytes

STZ-induced diabetic mice

PI3K/Akt pathway (−), GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane (+), GLU (−)

[39]

 Garlic oil /DATS

Diabetic rat

Insulin (+), GTT (+)

[16]

 VO (alx)2

(Allixin isolated from dried garlic)

rat adipocytes

T1D model mice

serum glucose (−), insulin resistance (+), GTT (+),

*The plasma adiponectin level was not changed

[43]

 Aqueous extract of raw garlic

alloxan-induced diabetic male rabbit

GLU (−), CL (−)

[45]

 Aged garlic extract

STZ-induced diabetic rat

GLU (−), GHb (−), Renoprotective effect (+)

[38, 46]

 Alliin (S-allyl cysteine sulfoxide)

DIO mice

Insulin sensitivity (+), CL (−), TG (−)

[47]

 Garlic extract

T2D patient

GLU (−), CL (−)

[49]

 Aged garlic extract

Immobilization stress in mice

renal cell hypertrophy (−), corticosterone (−), GLU (−)

[57]

 Garlic

Metabolic syndromes in fructose fed rat

insulin sensitivity (+)

[64]

 s-allyl cysteine-enriched black garlic juice

STZ-induced insulin-deficient mice

BMI (−), GLU (−), insulin (+)

[129]

 Aged black garlic

db/db mice

insulin resistance (−), TC (−), TG (−), HDL (+)

[130]

Garlic Effect on VEGF

 Aged garlic extract

T2D patients at high cardiovascular risk

No significant change in endothelial cell function, vascular inflammation, oxidative stress or resistance to insulin

[23]

 Aged garlic extract

Rat

Coronary arteries relaxation (+), myocardial contractility (−)

[77]

 Alliin

Chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model

Human endothelial cell proliferation (−), VEGF-induced angiogenesis (−)

*The effect was boosted by the antioxidant vitamins C and E

[84]

 Aged garlic solution

Chicken dorsum skin excisional lesion

Wound closure (+), re-epithelialization (+), dermal matrix regeneration (+), angiogenesis (+)

[88]

 DAS

B16F-10 melanoma cell induced capillary formation in C57BL/6 mice

Tumor-directed capillary formation (−), IL-1 (−), IL-6 (−), TNF-α (−), GM-CSF (−)

[89]

 Aged garlic extract

Colorectal carcinoma cells

Tumor growth (−), neovascularization (−), endothelial cell motility (−), endothelial cell proliferation (−), tube formation (−)

[91]

 Garlic + lemon aqueous extraction

Mice with breast cancer

Angiogenesis (−), apoptosis (+)

[94]

 DADS

Human prostate cancer cell line

PI3K/Akt (−), Ras/Raf (−), MMPs (−), pro-inflammatory/pro-angiogenic molecules (−), VEGF (−)

[96]

 Garlic-derived extracellular vesicles

A549 human lung carcinoma cells

VEGF (−), programmed cell death (+),

*Normal cells were unaffected by treatment

[98]

 Garlic oil

Avian embryo chorioallantoic membranes

Microvessel (−)

[131]

 Garlic powder

ductal breast carcinoma cells

VEGF (−), Angiogenesis (−)

[90]

 Garlic stem extract

melanoma cells

Cell growth (−) cell migration (−)

[99]

Garlic effect on BDNF

 Aged garlic extract

Cerebral ischemia rat

8-OHdG (+), TNFα (+), COX-2 (+), The damage caused by neuronal injury (−)

[115]

 DADS, DATS

Chronic constriction injury rat

Strong improvement in discomfort, H2S (+), BDNF (+), Nrf2 (+)

[116]

 Allixin

Cultured neurons from fetal rat brain

Neurotrophic activity (+), nerve cells viability (+), division site per axon in hippocampal neurons (+)

[117]

 Garlic essential oil

Mouse dentate gyrus

BDNF (+), AChE (−)

[118]

 S-allyl-L-cysteine

Mouse dentate gyrus

Neuroblast proliferation (+), neuroblast differentiation (+)

[118]

 Garlic essential oil

Rats utilizing the forced swimming test and unexpected chronic mild stress

The immobilization period (−), The sucrose preference index (+), 5-HT (+), DA (+), hippocampal BDNF (+), CREB (+), and protein kinase B (AKT) (+)

[119]

 DADS

Hippocampal neural cell proliferation in the adult brain

Hippocampal neurogenesis (−), neurocognitive functions (−), BDNF (−), CREB (−), ERK (−)

[120]

 DAS/DADS

Human malignant Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells

Anti-apoptotic factors (−), calpain and intrinsic caspase cascade (+), hippocampal neurogenesis (−), neurocognitive functions (−), BDNF (−), CREB (−), ERK (−)

[121]

 Garlic extract

Hippocampus cell in diabetic rat

hippocampus Na + /K + ATPase (+), Ca2 + ATPase (+)

[107]

 DATS

diabetic rats heart tissue

NO₂⁻(−), O₂⁻(−), Bax, caspase-3 and -9 (−)

[113]

Garlic effect on DR

 Garlic

Pre-diabetes induced retinal abnormalities in high fructose fed rat model

Functional, structural, and molecular abnormalities of the retina (−)

[125]

 Aqueous garlic extract

Diabetic Wistar rat

Retinal oxidative stress serum glucose (−), TGF-β2 (−), IL-1β (−)

[124, 126]

 Garlic

Patients with diabetic macular edema

Visual acuity (+), CMT (−), IOP (−)

[128]