Fig. 4

Comparative analysis of microbial communities among the groups. A The histogram displays LDA scores for features with differential abundance among the various groups. The scores indicate the magnitude of the effect size corresponding to each feature in distinguishing among groups. Taxa listed on the y-axis with LDA scores exceeding 3.5 are highlighted as potential biomarkers for their respective groups. B A cladogram illustrating the phylogenetic distribution of the microbiota determined by LEfSe analysis, with circle layers representing taxonomic classifications from kingdom to genus. Nodes are color-coded based on the group with the most pronounced association with each taxon. C A bar graph shows the statistical evaluation of genus-level differences among the control, vehicle, and GBP groups. The sample size in both groups was 8. Compared with the control group, ^#P < 0.05; compared with the vehicle, *P < 0.05